Original 1984 Mac OS desktop
Main article: Mac OS history

The “classic” Mac OS is characterized by its total lack of a command line; it is a completely graphical operating system. Heralded for its ease of use, it is also criticized for its singletasking (in early versions) or cooperative multitasking (in later versions), very limited memory management, lack of protected memory, and susceptibility to conflicts among “extensions” that extend the operating system, providing additional functionality (such as networking) or support for a particular device. Some extensions may not work properly together, or work only when loaded in a particular order. Troubleshooting Mac OS extensions can be a time-consuming process of trial and error.

Mac OS originally used the Macintosh File System (MFS), a flat file system with only one level of folders. This was replaced by the Hierarchical File System (HFS), which had a true directory tree. Both file systems are otherwise compatible.

Most file systems used with DOS, Unix, or other operating systems treat a file as simply a sequence of bytes, requiring an application to know which bytes represented what type of information. By contrast, MFS and HFS gave files two different “forks”. The data fork contained the same sort of information as other file systems, such as the text of a document or the bitmaps of an image file. The resource fork contained other structured data such as menu definitions, graphics, sounds, or code segments. A file might consist only of resources with an empty data fork, or only a data fork with no resource fork. A text file could contain its text in the data fork and styling information in the resource fork, so that an application which didn’t recognize the styling information could still read the raw text. On the other hand, these forks provided a challenge to interoperability with other operating systems; copying a file from a Mac to a non-Mac system would strip it of its resource fork.

The Classic OS is still supported and Classic Applications Support is shipped in addition to OS X with PowerPC (but not Intel) Macs as late as early 2006.

Mac OS X (officially pronounced “Mac OS Ten”) is a line of proprietary, graphical operating systems developed, sold, and marketed by Apple Computer, the latest of which is included with all currently-shipping Apple Macintosh computers. Mac OS X is the successor to the original Mac OS, which had been Apple’s primary operating system since 1984. Unlike its predecessor, Mac OS X is a multi-user, pre-emptively multitasking, Unix-like operating system built on technology that had been developed at NeXT through the second half of the 1980′s and up until Apple Computer purchased the company in early 1997. The operating system was first released in 1999 as Mac OS X Server 1.0, with a desktop-oriented version (Mac OS X v10.0) following in March, 2001.

The server edition, Mac OS X Server, is architecturally identical to its desktop counterpart but usually runs on Apple’s line of Macintosh server hardware. Mac OS X Server includes workgroup management and administration software tools that provide simplified access to key network services, including a mail server, a Samba server, a directory server, and a domain name server.

History
Main article: History of Mac OS X

Despite its branding as simply “version 10″ of the Mac OS, Mac OS X has a history that is almost completely independent of the earlier Mac OS releases.

Mac OS X is based on the Mach kernel and the BSD implementation of Unix, which were incorporated into NEXTSTEP, the object-oriented operating system developed by Steve Jobs’ NeXT company after he left Apple in 1985.[1] Meanwhile, during the years without Jobs at the helm, Apple attempted to create a “next-generation” operating system of its own (see Taligent and Copland) with little success.

Eventually, NeXT’s OS—called OPENSTEP at the time—was selected to form the basis for Apple’s next OS, and Apple purchased NeXT outright[2]. Jobs was re-hired, and later returned to the leadership of the company, shepherding the transformation of the programmer-friendly OPENSTEP into a system that would be welcomed by Apple’s primary market of home users and creative professionals, as a project known as Rhapsody. After some missteps which threatened the loyalty of independent developers to Mac OS, and changes of strategy to ease the transition from Mac OS 9 to the new system, Rhapsody evolved into Mac OS X.

Mac OS X has evolved through its successive versions, away from a focus on backward compatibility and toward “digital lifestyle” applications such as the iLife suite, enhanced business applications (iWork), and integrated home entertainment (the Front Row media center).
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Description

The original (left) and revised (right) retail packaging for Mac OS X v10.4 “Tiger”

Mac OS X is a radical departure from previous Macintosh operating systems as its underlying code base is completely different from previous versions. Its core, named Darwin, is an open source, Unix-like operating system, built around the XNU kernel with standard Unix facilities available from the command line interface. On top of this core, Apple designed and developed a number of proprietary closed source components, including the Aqua user interface and the Finder shell.

Mac OS X includes a number of features intended to make the operating system more stable and reliable than Apple’s previous operating systems. Pre-emptive multitasking and memory protection, for example, improve the ability of the operating system to run multiple applications simultaneously without them interrupting or corrupting each other. Many aspects of Mac OS X’s architecture are derived from OPENSTEP, which was designed with portability in mind, thus easing the transition from one platform to another. (For example, NEXTSTEP was ported from the original 68k-based NeXT workstations to PA-RISC/SPARC/x86-based machines before NeXT was purchased by Apple, and OPENSTEP was subsequently ported to the PowerPC architecture as part of Apple’s Rhapsody project.)

The most visible change was the Aqua graphical user interface. The use of soft edges, translucent colors, and pinstripes (similar to the hardware of the first iMacs), brought more color and texture to the windows and controls on the Desktop than OS 9′s “Platinum” appearance had offered. Some, including numerous users of the older versions of the operating system, decried the new look as “cutesy”[3][4] and lacking in professional polish. Others, however, hailed Aqua as being a bold and innovative step forward in a time when user interfaces were seen as being “dull and boring”[5]. Despite the controversy, the look was instantly recognizable, and even before the first version of Mac OS X was released, third-party developers started producing skins for customizable applications, like Winamp, similar to the Aqua appearance. (To some extent, Apple has used the successful transition to this new design as leverage, at various times threatening legal action against people who make or distribute software with an interface the company claims is derived from its copyrighted design[6].

Mac OS X includes its own software development tools, most prominently an integrated development environment called Xcode. Xcode provides interfaces to compilers that support several programming languages including C, C++, Objective-C, and Java. It supports the ability to target both platforms for which Mac OS X is sold, allowing an application to be built to run only on PowerPC, only on x86, or on both processors as a Universal Binary.
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Compatibility
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PowerPC

PowerPC versions of Mac OS X retain compatibility with older Mac OS applications by providing an emulation environment called Classic, which allows users to run Mac OS 9 as a process within Mac OS X, so that most older applications run as they would under the older operating system. In addition, the Carbon APIs for Mac OS 9 and Mac OS X were created to permit code to be written to run natively on both systems. The OpenStep APIs are still available, but Apple now calls the technology Cocoa. (This heritage is visible in the Cocoa APIs, in which the class names mostly begin with “NS” for NEXTSTEP.) A fourth option for developers is to write applications in the Java platform, which Mac OS X has supported as a “first class citizen”—in practice this means that Java applications fit as neatly into the operating system as possible while still being “cross-platform”, and that GUIs, while being written in Swing, look almost exactly like native Cocoa interfaces. Traditionally, Cocoa programs have been mostly written in Objective-C, with Java as an alternative. However, on July 11, 2005, Apple announced that “features added to Cocoa in Mac OS X versions later than 10.4 will not be added to the Cocoa-Java programming interface.” [7]

Mac OS X can run many BSD or Linux software packages, as long as they have been compiled for the platform. Compiled binaries are normally distributed as Mac OS X packages, but some may require command-line configuration or compilation. Projects such as Fink and DarwinPorts provide precompiled or preformatted packages for many standard packages. Since version 10.3, Mac OS X has included X11.app, the company’s version of the X11 graphical interface for Unix applications, as an optional component during installation. Apple’s implementation is based on XFree86 4.3 and X11R6.6, with a window manager which mimics the Mac OS X look, closer integration with Mac OS X, and extensions to use the native Quartz rendering system and to accelerate OpenGL. Earlier versions of Mac OS X can run X11 applications using XDarwin.

For the early releases of Mac OS X, the standard hardware platform supported was the full line of Macintosh computers (laptop, desktop, or server) based on PowerPC G3, G4, and G5 processors. Later versions of Mac OS X discontinued support for some older hardware; for example, Panther does not support “beige” G3s, and Tiger does not support systems that pre-date Apple’s introduction of FireWire ports. However, free tools such as XPostFacto have enabled installation of versions of Mac OS X on certain older systems not officially supported by Apple, including some pre-G3 systems. Except for features requiring specific hardware (e.g. graphics acceleration, DVD writing), the operating system offers the same functionality on all supported hardware.
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Intel

In April 2002, eWeek reported a rumor that Apple had a version of Mac OS X running on x86 processors, code-named Marklar. The idea behind Marklar was to keep Mac OS X running on an alternative platform should Apple become dissatisfied with the progress of the PowerPC platform. [8] These rumors subsided until late in May 2005, when CNet reported that Apple would unveil Marklar in the coming months.[9]

On June 6, 2005, Steve Jobs confirmed these rumors when he announced in his keynote address at the annual Apple Worldwide Developers Conference that Apple will be transitioning from PowerPC to Intel processors over the following two years, and that Mac OS X will support both platforms during this transition. The last time that Apple switched CPU families—from the Motorola 68K CPU to the IBM/Motorola PowerPC—Apple included a Motorola 68K emulator in the new OS that made almost all 68K software work automatically with legacy hardware. Apple has supported the 68K emulator for 11 years, however Apple will be dropping support for the 68K emulator during the transition to Intel CPUs. Included in the new OS for the Intel-based Macs is a new PowerPC emulator, named “Rosetta”, that enables software compiled for PowerPC Mac OS X to run on Intel Mac OS X machines. However, Apple dropped support for Classic mode on the new Intel Macs. (Third party emulation software, like Mini vMac, Basilisk II, and SheepShaver, provides support for some early versions of Mac OS.) A new version of Xcode and the underlying command-line compilers support building Universal Binaries that will run on either architecture.[10]

Software developers can support the new Intel Macs in any of the following ways:
They can continue to ship PowerPC-only software, which will automatically work by using the Rosetta emulator which is included with the new OS that runs on Intel-based Macs.
They can ship Universal Binaries, which include both the PowerPC and x86 versions of their application. When the user opens the application, depending upon which CPU the Mac has, the appropriate version of the application will be run automatically.
They can ship x86-only Mac OS X applications that will run only on the new Intel-based Macs.

Currently, a lot of software is available only for PowerPC, and is supported with Rosetta. However, Apple encourages Developers to produce Universal Binaries with support for both PowerPC and x86; that software should run faster on Intel-based Macs than would PowerPC-only software running on Rosetta, and some PowerPC software, such as kernel extensions and System Preferences plugins, is not supported on Intel Macs. Option 3 will likely start to be the norm several years from now when the demand for PowerPC software drops off.

Support for the PowerPC platform will remain in version 10.5, though it is unclear how long this dual-architecture support will be continued—but since Apple supported the Motorola 68K family for eleven years after the introduction of PowerPC systems, it is likely that they will support the PowerPC Macs for many years to come. Jobs also confirmed rumors that Apple has had versions of Mac OS X running on Intel processors for most of its developmental life. Such crossplatform capability already existed in Mac OS X’s lineage—the predecessor of Mac OS X, OPENSTEP, had been ported to many architectures, including Intel’s x86, and a port to x86 of the core operating system of Mac OS X, Darwin, has been available as a free download since Mac OS X was first released. Also note that Apple stated that Mac OS would only run on Apple x86 systems, not PCs, but several people have been using a development version of the OS on non-Apple machines.

It currently uses JavaScript code to incorporate the advertisements into a participating site. If it is included on a site which has not yet been crawled by the Mediabot, it will temporarily display advertisements for charitable causes known as public service announcements (PSAs). (Note that the Mediabot is a separate crawler from the Googlebot that maintains Google’s search index.)

Many sites use AdSense to monetize their content and some webmasters work hard to maximize their own AdSense income. They do this in three ways:
They use a wide range of traffic generating techniques including but not limited to online advertising.
They build valuable content on their sites; content which attracts AdSense ads and which pay out the most when they get clicked.
They use copy on their websites that encourage clicks on Ads. Note that Google prohibits people from using phrases like “Click on my AdSense ads” to increase click rates. Phrases accepted are “Sponsored Links” and “Advertisements”.

The source of all AdSense income is the AdWords program which in turn has a complex pricing model based on a Vickrey second price auction, in that it commands an advertiser to submit a sealed bid (not observable by competitors). Additionally, for any given click received, advertisers only pay one bid increment above the second-highest bid.

How AdSense works

Each time a visitor visits a page with an AdSense tag, a piece of JavaScript writes an iframe tag, whose src attribute includes the URL of the page. Google’s servers use a cache of the page for the URL or the keywords in the URL itself to determine a set of high-value keywords. (Some of the details are described in the AdSense patent.) If keywords have been cached already, ads are served for those keywords based on the AdWords bidding system.

The storage requirements of an AdSense system are stunningly modest. If each URL has just 8 “high-value” keywords, each represented by a single 32-bit number, then the keywords for each URL could be represented with just 32 bytes. The high value keywords of 4 billion URLs could be stored in 128GB, which would cost only $100 (circa 2006). 400 billion URLs or 100 drives (for a redundancy of 100) would require only $10,000 in storage costs.

AdSense serves a very large number of pages each day. If each day around 1B people saw 10 AdSense impressions (or 100M people saw 100 AdSense impressions), then AdSense would serve around 10B requests/day, or 115,741 requests/sec. If one machine can serve 20 reqs/second (seek times to read a random 4096-byte location on a drive allow for bursts of well over 100 reqs/second), then Google would require 5,787 servers to serve these 10B reqs/day. If each of these servers were hosted at a cost of $100/month, then it would cost $579K/month to run the adservers needed.

Suppose these 10B impressions/day generated clicks at a clickthrough rate of .3% and an average CPC of $.10. Then each day Google would receive 30M clicks/day (347 clicks/sec), generating $3M/day ($34.77/sec), or 900M clicks/month, generating $90M/month.
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Abuse

Some webmasters create sites tailored to lure searchers from Google and other engines onto their AdSense to make money from clicks. These “zombie” sites often contain nothing but a large amount of interconnected, automated content (e.g. a directory with content from the Open Directory Project). Possibly the most popular form of such “AdSense farms” are splogs (“spam blogs”), which are centered around known high-paying keywords. Also many sites use the free Wikipedia content to attract visitors. These and related approaches are considered to be search engine spam and can be reported to Google.

Jay-Z has been completely immersed with his Island Def Jam work for the last couple of months, while spending all his free time at the offices or games of New Jersey Nets. Beyonce meanwhile went to Cannes and to the Walk of Fame Induction ceremony all by herself, feeling lonely and unsupported. “Jay is obsessed with keeping basketball game scores” another very close source to the couple is saying. “Beyonce is looking to the future. Her sister Solange already has a baby. Her own parents have an amazing, fulfilling relationship and she not only wants a steady career, she wants to have tight family circle around her as well”.

The Page Six publicized basketball game fight wasn’t a first blow-out the couple has experienced lately. Private fights, ignored telephone calls, screaming arguments have been the theme of the couple’s last couple of months. “It has simply become too much”, a source confides. “Beyonce realized that two of them just might be incompatible and their relationship is really a lie they both were trying to believe in”. They came together to LA Reid’s birthday bash last week and put on the “happy couple” show. But inside out source observes. “Beyonce simply feels empty. She wants to spend this important Dreamgirls year for her with someone who understands her and relates to her a lot more”.

Another wild card factor into separation was sultry singer Rihanna, an Island protégé with whom Jay-Z has been spending a lot of time lately. “Beyonce does not want her life to be like Bling (the novel)”, the source adds. “She doesn’t believe Jay has had an affair but the attention that he’s been devoting to the (SOS singer) has been abnormal”. They had at least three private dinners in New York, numerous long cell phone conversations and countless of business meetings at Jay’s offices. All while Beyonce was away. It doesn’t bode well that marketing and producer staffs at Island are studying nearly every inch of Beyonce’s career to market the Caribbean youngster in the similar manner. “Beyonce was Crazy in Love three years ago. She’s simply slowly accepting the end of their relationship.”

Google in 1998

They hypothesized that a search engine that analyzed the relationships between websites would produce better results than existing techniques which essentially ranked results according to how many times the search term appeared on a page.[6] It was originally nicknamed “BackRub,” because the system checked backlinks to estimate a site’s importance.[7] A small search engine called RankDex was already exploring a similar strategy.[8]

Convinced that the pages with the most links to them from other highly relevant web pages must be the most relevant pages associated with the search, Page and Brin tested their thesis as part of their studies, and laid the foundation for their search engine. Originally the search engine used the Stanford University website with the domain google.stanford.edu. The domain google.com was registered on September 15, 1997, and the company was incorporated as Google Inc. on September 7, 1998 at a friend’s garage in Menlo Park, California.

In March, 1999, the company moved into offices at 165 University Avenue in Palo Alto, home to several other noted Silicon Valley technology startups. After quickly outgrowing two other sites, the company settled into their current home in a complex of buildings in Mountain View at 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, in 2003. Silicon Graphics leased these buildings to Google.

The Google search engine attracted a loyal following among the growing number of Internet users. They were attracted to its simple, uncluttered design — a competitive advantage to attract users who did not wish to enter searches on web pages filled with visual distractions. This appearance, while imitating the early AltaVista, had behind it Google’s unique search capabilities. In 2000 Google began selling advertisements associated with the search keyword to produce enhanced search results for the user. This strategy was important for increasing advertising revenue, which is based upon the number of hits users make upon ads. The ads were text-based in order to maintain an uncluttered page design and to maximize page loading speed. Keywords were sold based on a combination of price bid and clickthroughs, with bidding starting at $.05 per click. This model of selling keyword advertising was originally pioneered by Goto.com (later renamed Overture, then Yahoo! Search Marketing).[9] While many of its dot-com rivals failed in the new Internet marketplace, Google quietly rose in stature and generated revenue.

U.S. Patent 6,285,999 describing Google’s ranking mechanism (PageRank) was granted on September 4, 2001. The patent was officially assigned to Stanford University and lists Lawrence Page as the inventor.

Corporate culture

A license plate seen in the Googleplex parking lot

Google adopts a relaxed corporate culture, reminiscent of the Dot-com boom. Google’s corporate philosophy is based on principles like “You can make money without doing evil”, “You can be serious without a suit” and, “Work should be challenging and the challenge should be fun.” A complete list of corporate fundamentals is available on Google’s website.[18] The company encourages equality within corporate levels. Twice a week there is a roller hockey game in the company parking lot. Google’s relaxed corporate culture can also be seen externally through their holiday variations of the Google logo.
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“Twenty percent” time

All Google engineers are encouraged to spend 20% of their work time on projects that interest them. The time can be allocated to one day a week, or pooled into a month. Some of Google’s newer services, such as Gmail, Google News and orkut, are said to have originated from these independent endeavors.
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Googleplex

Welcome sign to the Googleplex
Main article: Googleplex

As a further play on Google’s name, its headquarters, located in California, are referred to as “the Googleplex” — a googolplex being 1 followed by a googol of zeros, and the HQ being a complex of buildings (cf. multiplex, cineplex, etc). The lobby is decorated with a piano, lava lamps, and a real-time projection of current search queries. The hallways are full of exercise balls and bicycles. Each employee has access to the corporate recreation center. Recreational amenities are scattered throughout the campus, and include a workout room with weights and rowing machines, locker rooms, washers and dryers, a massage room, assorted video games, Foosball, a baby grand piano, a pool table, and ping pong. In addition to the rec room, there are snack rooms stocked with various cereals, gummy bears, toffee, licorice, cashews, yogurt, carrots, fresh fruit, and dozens of different drinks including fresh juice, soda, and make your own cappuccino.[19]
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April Fool’s Day jokes
Main article: Google’s hoaxes

Google has a tradition of creating April Fool’s Day jokes such as Google MentalPlex, which featured the use of mental power to search the web. In 2002, they claimed that pigeons were the secret behind their growing search engine. In 2004, it featured Google Lunar, which featured jobs on the moon, and in 2005, a fictitious brain-boosting drink, termed Google Gulp, was announced. In 2006, they came up with Google Romance. One can find other pranks hidden between Google’s pages. Additionally, in the languages list one can find the Bork! Bork! Bork! version, imitating the Muppet Show’s Swedish Chef. They also offer versions in Pig Latin, Elmer Fudd, Klingon, and a Leet (or h4x0r) version of Google. Some people thought the announcement of Gmail in 2004 around April Fool’s Day (as well as the doubling of Gmail’s storage space to two gigabytes in 2005) was a joke. In 2005, featured on the Gmail homepage, was a comedic graph depicting Google’s goal of “infinity plus one” GB.

Google Inc. (NASDAQ: GOOG and LSE: GGEA) is an American multinational software corporation, first incorporated as a privately held corporation in September, 1998, that specializes in search engine, information retrieval technology and online advertising. With a market capitalization of US$118.32 billion as of June 2006, Google is the largest internet search company in the world, almost twice as large as rival Yahoo![1] The company employs approximately 6,800 employees[2] and is based in Mountain View, California. Eric Schmidt, formerly chief executive officer of Novell, was named Google’s CEO when co-founder Larry Page stepped down.

The name “Google” originated from a misspelling of “googol,” [3] which refers to 10100(a 1 followed by one-hundred zeros). Google has become well known for its corporate culture and innovative, clean products, and has a major impact on online culture. The verb “to google” has come to mean “to perform a Web search”, usually with the Google search engine.

Google’s services are run on several server farms, which, in 2004, consisted of over 30 clusters of up to 2,000 PCs per cluster. Each cluster contains one petabyte of data with sustained transfer rates of 2 Gbps. Combined, over four billion web pages, averaging 10 Kb each, have been fully indexed.[4]

Coming on the heels of the Writely acquisition and launch of Google Spreadsheet, the addition of Minesweeper looks like it may finally end the MS monopoly on the desktop.

Larry Ellison of Oracle lauded the innovation, saying, “Finally, our employees have no more excuses for running Windows on their PC’s! And I can work completely on my new Mac now when I’m at the office.”

Google Minesweeper includes a number of impressive innovations including:
o Online collaboration – cooperate with co-workers to uncover mines
o Online game storage. Now you can finish that game at home.
o Integrated GTalk for real-time trash talking.

Not everyone is so excited about this launch though. Sam Kinelson, CEO at the Sequoia-backed startup Minestrr, complained “This is just another example of Google quashing competition in a new market segment. They’re just sweeping the field to keep out fast moving up-and-comers. What’s next? Google Notepad?!?!” Google is already launching into a crowded field, with established startups including Minestrr, mine.sweep.er, 37mines.com, minetube, and technominer.com.

The launch is being covered over at Techcrunch (“Google changes the game”) and by Om Malik (“Google sweeping up the competition”).

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